Proposal for Chapter:

Draft chapter for Transformative Learning and Online Education: Aesthetics, Dimensions and Concepts, Volkan Yuzer & Gulsun Kuruback, Eds, IGI Global, 2011.

Learning Outcomes in Online Graduate Education Courses

Greg Kearsley (gkearsley@sprynet.com)

Transformational learning theory as developed by Mezirow (1991; 2000), Cranton (1994), and others is primarily about the role of meaning and critical reflection in the learning process. It is the thesis of this chapter that transformational learning theory is highly relevant to understanding the learning process that occurs during online graduate study.[1] Given the increasing prevalence of online learning in graduate education (it is estimated that more than 20% of graduate students now take online courses), it is important that we understand the nature of the online learning process.

There are many reasons to believe that transformational learning theory is of particular relevance to online graduate learning. First of all, the majority of participants in online graduate programs are older adults (over 35 years old) who have full time jobs and families. They are primarily enrolled in programs to advance their personal development or professional career growth, with less emphasis on completion of the degree and more on the substance of the courses they take. Furthermore, most online grad students tend to exhibit a high degree of self-directness and an internal locus of control (i.e., feel that they are in control of their own destiny), so they have personality characteristics that predispose them towards reflective learning.

Secondly the fundamental component of online learning is interaction. Interaction can be with learning materials, with instructors, or with other students. Interaction involves making a response and getting feedback. The comparison of response and feedback is an inherently reflective process. If an online course is highly interactive, the student will have an opportunity for extensive critical analysis and reflection.

A third aspect of online learning that is particularly relevant to transformational theory is the prominence of collaboration in most online graduate programs. Learners engage in online discussions using forums, blogs, web conferencing, or social networks, and during these activities attempt to extract meaning from the experiences and thoughts of others. Students may undergo significant changes in opinion and attitudes as a consequence of the peer interaction that can occur in an online course.

Finally, there are numerous potential limitations of online learning that could affect a transformational process (e.g., Hara & King, 1999). If the technology being used for online learning is unreliable, this can result in much frustration for the learner. Similarly if a learner doesn’t receive timely and useful feedback on their course work, they will get frustrated. There is also the question of whether the bandwidth limitations of online learning (particularly in terms of body language and physical cues) restrict the nature of communication that occurs in an online course. These kinds of limitations may influence the nature of perspective change that can occur in online learning.

Prior Research

There has not been a lot of research addressing the role of transformational theory in online learning (see Taylor, 2007, for an overall research summary). Cragg et al (2001) applied transformational theory to the learning process of nursing students in a distance learning context. Benson, Guy & Tallman (2001) attempted to document the perspective change that occurred in four students who completed two online library media courses. Reushle (2008) used transformation theory as the framework for an online teacher training course. King (2002) examined transformational theory in graduate educational technology programs, but these did not involve learning online. These studies suggest that transformational theory may be a useful framework for understanding the online learning process, but don’t provide much detail.

On the other hand, there is a large body of research about the outcomes of online learning and some of these studies are relevant to transformational theory. For example, Schou (2007) found that students had a more positive attitude towards statistics after completing an online course and Chia, Poe & Wuensch (2009) identified changes in cultural attitudes in a virtual course on cross-cultural understanding. Wickersham & Dooley (2006) showed that students employ critical thinking skills in online discussions.

We also know that student satisfaction and success in online courses is a factor of comfort level with technology and cognitive styles that favor autonomous learning (e.g., Drennan, Kennedy & Pisarski, 2005). Instructor behavior, particularly in terms of the nature of the interaction and feedback provided, is another factor that affects student satisfaction in online courses (e.g., Arbaugh, 2001). Since student satisfaction may be tied to changes in perspectives, these factors are likely relevant to understanding the nature of reflective learning in online courses.

Slack et al (2003) studied the levels of learning that occurred in a course about occupational therapy. They used the SOLO (Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) taxonomy to rate the nature of learning that transpired in synchronous sessions in discussion between participants. Their results showed that there was a higher frequency of relational learning in later weeks of the course. The authors interpreted these results as indicating that deeper learning (such as reflection) takes time to develop and depends upon learners becoming comfortable with technology and online interaction.

Palmer, Holt & Bray (2008) studied the value of keeping an online journal in an engineering management course. Students indicated that the main value of keeping the journal was that it provided them an opportunity to reflect on what they were learning as well as learn from others in the class (journal postings were public). The study also showed that the number of journal postings were positively related to overall grade. The authors conclude that they believe that the journal resulted in a deeper understanding of course content, but they could not show that directly from the results.

From this and other research about online learning, we can conclude that there is ample evidence that reflective learning occurs during online courses, although it may be difficult to measure directly and is subject to a number of factors such as instructor behavior, course length, and the nature of interaction in the course (e.g., synchronous, asynchronous).

Relevant Theory

Theories of distance learning (e.g., Anderson, 2008; Moore & Kearsley, 2005; Roberts, 2004) have generally not examined the significance of meaning or reflection in the online learning process. However, there are aspects of these theories that are congruent with transformational theory and it is beneficial to examine these relationships. The central focus of all theories of distance learning is the nature of interaction that occurs between students and content, instructors and other students. If the student is actively engaged with the subject matter, the instructor, and the other students, physical location doesn’t matter as far as learning is concerned. So theories of distance learning focus on how to maximize interaction through the design of the materials, the teaching strategies employed, or collaboration among students. Given that one of the major ways to increase interaction is to ask students to participate in discussion forums responding to questions and reading/responding to each other’s postings, the opportunity to reflect and probe meaning is a typical side-effect.

A central idea of online learning theory is social presence (e.g. Kehrwald, 2008; Richardson & Swan, 2003; Rourke et al, 2001) The more that students interact with their instructor and their peers, the higher degree of social presence they experience (quite possibly at a higher level than in a typical traditional classroom). Social presence is created by posting messages in discussion forums or blogs, or participation in web conferences. Social presence seems to correlate with perceived student learning accomplishment and satisfaction in online courses. It also seems likely that social presence is positively associated with increased reflective behaviors in so far as it entails increased exchange of ideas with others. However, this relationship has not been shown.

Palloff & Pratt (2007) discuss the role of transformational theory in online learning at length. They state: “By simply getting involved in an online class for the first time, or even on an ongoing basis, a learner immediately encounters a disorienting dilemma. This is a new medium in which participants interact differently and in which students are expected to engage with the material, each other, and the instructor in an entirely different way. Thus, the online classroom is fertile territory for transformative learning” (p187). They point out that there are two types of reflection to be encouraged: reflection about the content, and reflection about learning itself (self-awareness). The former usually occurs via discussion postings responding to specific questions on topics throughout the course, whereas the latter takes place at the end of a course when students are asked to reflect on what they have learned in the course. Paloff & Pratt also highlight the fact that for reflective learning to occur in a course, the instructor must encourage the process through the posing of suitable questions or assignments.

Finally, we should consider the relationships between theories of critical thinking and reflective thinking, both of which emphasize meaning. There has been considerable discussion about how to foster critical thinking in online courses. For example, Walker (2005) outlines a number of strategies for both students and instructors. Boris & Hall (2005) outline their use of a specific inquiry model in an online course. McKnight (2000) remarks: “We cannot assume that all students will come with sufficient critical thinking skills to advance an online discussion nor can we assume that faculty have sufficient skills and practice in monitoring discussions or skills in creating productive communities of online learners (p39)”.

Examining Discussion Forum Discourse

Student discourse in discussion forums, blogs or course journals represent the best source of data to analyze reflective statements and identify changes in meaning structures in online courses. In this section, we will examine discussion forum postings from three different graduate level courses in Education offered at three different institutions. Class 1 was a survey of corporate elearning; class 2 was an introduction to online teaching, and class 3 was on action research. The participants in these three classes were all educational professionals working in training or school settings. All three classes used the discussion forums available in learning management systems (Blackboard, Moodle, and Ecollege) and classes 1 & 2 also used web conference systems (Wimba).The postings examined were from the “final reflections” that students were asked to complete at the end of the course (comments specific to course content have been edited out).

If we examine these postings in terms of Mezirow’s (1991) original distinction between two types of meaning structures: schemes and perspectives, we can see evidence for 4 four major states of transformation (see Table 1). In many cases, students report that participation the course has increased their awareness or understanding of concepts they already had (refined meaning schema). In some cases, they say that they have gained new insights (developed meaning schema). Students may remark that they experienced some form of discomfort during the course indicating a change in meaning perspective. Finally, students report that they have increased confidence, an indicator of having acquired a meaning perspective.

Table 1. Four common transformational states based on Mezirow (1991).

1. Increased awareness/understanding	Refined meaning schema
2. Gained new insights about subject	Developing meaning schema
3. Experienced discomfort	Changing meaning perspective
4. Increased self-confidence	Acquired meaning perspective

The data from the three classes, coded according to these four transformational states is provided in Tables 2, 3, & 4. Note that this coding is a subjective interpretation of student’s comments and may not be very reliable. But it serves to illustrate that learners do emerge from online courses reporting different levels of transformation.

These data raise the question of what aspects of the course design and delivery (i.e., teaching) affect the particular transformations that students experience. While the prior knowledge and life experiences of students obviously dictates the existing schema and perspectives, the kinds of learning activities that students carrying out in an online course should affect the transformations that occur. For example, asking students to read and comment upon the discussion postings of others (a typical learning activity) is an inherently reflective process. Furthermore, when students are divided into small discussion groups, the exposure to the views of others is intensified, potentially increasing the opportunity for reflection.

Table 1: Reflective Postings from Corporate Elearning Class

S1
This being my seventh course, I am pleasantly surprised as I reflect on EDUC 647 that this course gave me one of the broadest perspectives and the best reality check about the business of elearning. What I learned about corporate elearning was not all comforting, but it seemed to be a realistic view of the elearning “industry” as it currently exists. [2,3]

As I look back at the beginning of this semester, my expectation from this class was to learn the various aspects of e-learning in different sectors. Now at the end of the semester, I can confidently say that this was one of the most informational, engaging, and thought provoking class I have taken. [2]

I was skeptical about this class at first since it seemed like a rehash of earlier on-line classes. But as I got into it, this class came through with new and insightful information that made it worthwhile learning endeavor. While it can sometimes feel redundant to hear, read and think about known topics, this session did offer many meaningful reviews of topics I was comfortable with. This class also illustrated and reinforced what is required for e-learning in the corporate sector, how e-learning compares and how it can be different from traditional educational e-learning programs such as in a college setting. This class also went on to illustrate how to take advantage of synchronous and blended training options and on-line tools that can make e-learning more viable in certain training scenarios. While collaboration is not a new idea for me and other classmates, the use of virtual teams for asynchronous, synchronous and blended classes made sense and showed me how to use virtual teams to make e-learning to be more engaging. [1,2]

S4
I learned a number of valuable things during this course. First, the majority of my learning came from the discussion boards. Having to answer the question “How does this apply to your own organization?” forced me to critically think about how I can apply this new knowledge to my organization and improve learning. I was often surprised to learn that other people were experiencing the same obstacles that I was experiencing. [2,3]

In spite of the fact that I've been in the training industry for almost 20 years, there is so much that I do not know. (I learned humility). Also, that the only thing worse than the momentary feeling of stupidity when asking a question that everyone in the class already knows or doing something wrong is to sit at my desk in silence and wonder. This was a great learning environment and I'm glad I sacrificed my pride in order to learn from the professor and other students in the class.[3]

S6
To say that I learned a lot is an understatement. I became a better person. I was more confident about what I know. The gaps that I did not even know exist surfaced. I am now focused more on integrating learning for improved performance in everything that I do. Looking back at the place where I was and where I am now, I must have travelled the speed of light. My mind was stretched out of its comfort zone into one challenging adventure. [2,3]

Table 2: Reflective Postings from Online Teaching Class

S1:
Participating in this course has opened new doors for advancement in the virtual world for me. I have gained more insight as to where this new era of virtual learning is going. I also have been introduced to a wealth of resources that can help me be a better virtual instructor. [2]

S2:
The course has been outstanding, mainly for newcomers to online teaching like me. The idea of creating, sharing, and criticizing our own lessons was really amazing. I had never thought that there were so many available good resources online. The practice on the Wimba sessions and the creation of Wiki pages made me feel more comfortable with online teaching. The group discussions were really effective and ending the posting with a question that creates more debate was a good idea. Before taking this class I had the impression that online teaching was distant and that no one could learn much from it. I have come to realize that online teacher is very much like live classroom teaching, it all depends on the teacher. We have certainly learned how not to make it look distant.[1,4]

S3:
I really enjoyed this course and learned a great deal. I learned a lot through the resources we were given in preparation for each module, as well as through the sharing of WIKIs, thoughts, ideas, and lesson plans of my fellow course participants. I had to think through a lot of things that I had given a passing thought to, but had never really sat down and focused on them. I learned a few new computer skills and got more comfortable with online conferences.[2.4]

S4:
As for this class, I enjoyed the online Wimba sessions the most. Having the opportunity to bounce ideas and experiences off of other people was great. The opportunity to practice being a moderator was terrific and was my favorite activity. I learned some things about working with disabled students online and found that the very old and the very young learner might face the same type of challenges as the disabled. I learned some things about effective communication in the on line environment and how to be a more productive online teacher. [1,2]

S5:
Working with classmates, and instructors, from across the nation was a great thing too because of exposure to regional ideas, new websites and technological concepts. Again, because I lacked a lot of "common" knowledge in the OLL community, I stepped out of my comfort zone to stretch and push myself in order to meet course requirements. These endeavors caused me to expand my thinking and develop more technological skills. Very challenging and stimulating. [2,3]

S6:
I believe I have increased my knowledge of the tools available for online teaching. The synchronous and non-synchronous methods impressed me because I had previously not effectively used the live interaction like the Wimba classroom. I also discovered that I could make forum experiences more motivating and enabling for the learning of my students. I also have come to believe strongly in the teacher as facilitator of online discussions and interaction. In lesson design. I had previously relied too much upon a lecture/PPT presentation approach that was teacher centered. My synchronous lessons are now far more interactive and students seem to enjoy the active participation far better than the old “let me pour my knowledge in your brain” approach. Participating in the class as a student has made me a better online teacher because I am “stealing” the techniques experienced online teachers use. I now know that the class I teach must be student centered, not teacher centered. [1,2]

Table 3: Reflective Postings from Action Research Class

S1:

There are a number of ways I feel this project has helped me grow as a learner and as a professional. By analyzing a problem in my classroom and then seeking literature and appropriate strategies to implement that would help to promote positive, academic change, the project was more meaningful to me than if it was something I was asked to do without connecting any element of it to my own practice in my classroom. I enjoyed trying different strategies that would cater to different levels of learners in my classroom, as well as planning for additional academic change. All in all, this process was extremely meaningful, and when I employ action research in the future, it will be easier for me to utilize the components in an effective manner. I will certainly look back upon this experience and continue to recognize the importance of identifying problems and planning to implement potential solutions to help my students learn and grow academically and personally. [2]

I have to say that this experience was an emotional mix for me! I did get to know my students much better through this process and loved watching them grow as writers. The piece that went really well for me was the administration support. Whenever I had a question they were there to help and that was extremely important for me through this process. My surveys in the classroom worked out well because I realized I should be asking my students for more feedback in other areas. It was a big ah-ha moment for me.[2,3]

S3
I did it! I'm the first person in my immediate family to earn a masters degree. I feel a great sense of accomplishment and pride to have reached this academic and professional milestone. The experience of completing an action research project was very satisfying. I must say that this project required the most time that I have ever spent on an academic assignment and I was very concerned that I did not possess the necessary "tools" to make it through this class and program - I proved myself wrong on both accounts. [4]

I have enjoyed each of the courses we have taken and have learned so much. Through the reflections for the eportfolio course and the writing and implementation of the action research project I realize how much information and knowledge I have gained. Although I have used certain aspects of the courses in my teaching I think without the added time pressure of the assignments we have had to complete, I will be able to focus more on the strategies and techniques that have been discussed and will use many of the ideas on a daily basis in my teaching! The on-line learning format was very amenable to my lifestyle especially while working full-time. I have enjoyed the courses and the input from all of you! [1]

At the beginning of the course, there was no light at the end of the tunnel. I struggled with how I was going to complete an Action Research Project while teaching full-time and taking the Portfolio course on top of it. Well, I survived! Looking back it was not as bad as I thought. Of course there were moments when I wanted to pull my hair out and throw my computer out the window, but overall this project had a huge impact on my teaching. It challenged me as a professional and gave me ways to improve the teaching in my classroom. Not only did I reap the benefits, but my students did as well. To that, I am truly grateful.[2,3]

I am grateful for the experience, and I know that I have grown as a professional because of it. I think that the process was rewarding, as it challenged me to look at an area of education that I was interested in with a great deal more depth than I otherwise would have. The results of participating in such a detailed research process are that I now have an understanding of school climate that I otherwise wouldn't have, and I can use that understanding to improve the quality of education at my school.[1,3]

This course and the action research project have been challenging for me.. I definitely feel like I am a better person (and teacher) because of my action research project. It takes strength and dedication to face something like this head on and persevere through it. I must say I am kind of proud of myself:) As for my professional life I feel I have been strengthened as well. I think I look out at the students in my classroom differently. I have just found a new avenue to take in order to help them.[2,3]

Conclusions

This chapter has examined research, theory, and data relevant to transformational learning in online graduate classes. It was argued that transformation theory provides a good basis for explaining the learning processes that occur during online classes, namely the development of new meaning schema and perspectives. It appears that for many students, taking an online course is a significant learning experience that goes beyond simple acquisition of new knowledge or skills. Extended interaction with their peers and instructors, as well as the opportunity to engage in authentic learning activities and control their own learning process, seems to result in a richer, more complete learning experience for many students than is usually the case in traditional classroom settings.

However, this analysis only begins to addresses questions that arise about transformational theory and online learning. For example, why do some students seem to experience changes in meaning structures whereas others don’t? Are there certain teaching strategies employed by instructors that are more effective at catalyzing perspective change? What is the relationship between student satisfaction and reflection? How do the various capabilities of current and emerging online learning systems encourage (or discourage) reflective learning? And, what kinds of evaluation methodologies can we use to identify the details of the reflective learning process? Hopefully, further research will address these and other questions pertinent to tranformative learning.

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[1] It may be relevant to all forms of online learning (e.g., K-12, corporate training), but the outcome measures in other domains tend to be focused on specific skills/competencies and do not afford opportunities to examine reflective behavior the way graduate education does.